Similarly, religious plays were banned in the Netherlands in 1539, the Papal States in 1547 and in Paris in 1548. The hardest hit lands, like England, were unable to buy grain from France because of the prohibition, and from most of the rest of the grain producers because of crop failures from shortage of labor. Using this powerful tool, the Hungarian king led wars against the Turkish armies and stopped the Ottomans during his reign. [36] The Holy Roman Empire passed to the House of Habsburg in 1438, where it remained until its dissolution in 1806. Between 1347 and 1350, a mysterious disease known as the "Black Death" (the bubonic plague) killed some 20 million people in Europe30 percent of the continents population. Arguing on the basis of a neo-Malthusian economics, revisionist historians recast the Black Death as a necessary and long overdue corrective to an overpopulated Europe. [17] The already weak harvests of the north suffered and the seven-year famine ensued. At the Battle of Mohcs, the forces of the Ottoman Empire annihilated the Hungarian army and Louis II of Hungary drowned in the Csele Creek while trying to escape. It was in Valois France, under the heavy demands of the Hundred Years' War, that the armed forces gradually assumed a permanent nature. No one won the Crusades; in fact, many thousands of people from both sides lost their lives. Dates are approximate, consult particular articles for details Donald Sullivan addresses this question, claiming that scholarship has neglected the period and viewed it largely as a precursor to subsequent climactic events such as the Renaissance and Reformation. [78], The upheavals caused by the Black Death left certain minority groups particularly vulnerable, especially the Jews,[79] who were often blamed for the calamities. Jones, pp. Meanwhile, the Islamic world was growing larger and more powerful. [131] The beneficiaries of these developments would accumulate immense wealth. [56], Avignon was the seat of the papacy from 1309 to 1376. [103], At the Council of Constance (14141418), the Papacy was once more united in Rome. More like this Burke, p. 24; Koenigsberger, p. 363; Nicholas, p. 161. A series of famines and plagues, including the Great Famine of 1315 . Lasting roughly 2.5 million years, the Stone Age ended around 5,000 years ago when humans in the Near East began working with metal and making tools and weapons from bronze. [22] These conditions might have been the effect of the Little Ice Age. Symptoms of the Black Death included fever, chills, vomiting, diarrhea, terrible aches and pains and then death. The period of European history extending from about 500 to 1400-1500 ce is traditionally known as the Middle Ages. [136], In science, classical authorities like Aristotle were challenged for the first time since antiquity. [47] The victory did not end Tartar rule in the region, however, and its immediate beneficiary was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which extended its influence eastwards. [8] Referring to the crisis in Italian as the "Crisis of the 14th Century", Giovanni Cherubini alluded to the debate that already by 1974 had been going on "for several decades" in French, British, American, and German historiography. Frescoes and mosaics decorated church interiors, and artists painted devotional images of the Virgin Mary, Jesus and the saints. [17] Food shortages and rapidly inflating prices were a fact of life for as much as a century before the plague. [42] Louis the Great led successful campaigns from Lithuania to Southern Italy, and from Poland to Northern Greece. 286, 291. The term was first used by 15th-century scholars to designate the period between their own time and the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations. [2], The Great Famine of 13151317 and Black Death of 13471351 reduced the population perhaps by half or more as the Medieval Warm Period came to a close and the first century of the Little Ice Age began. 31829; Cipolla (1994), pp. For the first time, a member of an aristocratic family (and not from a royal family) was crowned. [49] After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 the Russian princes started to see themselves as the heirs of the Byzantine Empire. [17], Most governments instituted measures that prohibited exports of foodstuffs, condemned black market speculators, set price controls on grain and outlawed large-scale fishing. Victims could go to bed feeling healthy and be dead by morning. [88] Once properly managed, this weapon gave them a great advantage over the French in the Hundred Years' War. A late 12th-century English account describes the presence of seven midwives at the labour of Eliza of Middleton. In medieval society, most people lived in villages and most of the population were peasants. This is considered to be one of the final battles of Medieval times. The Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history: classical civilisation, or Antiquity; the Middle Ages; and the Modern Period. Morality plays emerged as a distinct dramatic form around 1400 and flourished until 1550, an example being The Castle of Perseverance, which depicts mankind's progress from birth to death. In 800 CE, for example, Pope Leo III named the Frankish king Charlemagne the Emperor of the Romansthe first since that empires fall more than 300 years before. Scholars translated Greek, Iranian and Indian texts into Arabic. As the commercial economy developed, port cities in particular thrived. Landless peasants known as serfs did most of the work on the fiefs: They planted and harvested crops and gave most of the produce to the landowner. 500 Date commonly cited as beginning of Middle Ages. The Crisis of the Late Middle Ages was a series of events in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries that ended centuries of European stability during the Late Middle Ages. Families like the Fuggers in Germany, the Medicis in Italy, the de la Poles in England, and individuals like Jacques Coeur in France would help finance the wars of kings, and achieve great political influence in the process. [51] By the 14th century, however, it had almost entirely collapsed into a tributary state of the Ottoman Empire, centered on the city of Constantinople and a few enclaves in Greece. [68] The demographic consequences of this famine, however, were not as severe as the plagues that occurred later in the century, particularly the Black Death. [57] With the return of the Pope to Rome in 1378, the Papal State developed into a major secular power, culminating in the morally corrupt papacy of Alexander VI. Cantor, p. 564; Hollister, pp. [92], Changes also took place within the recruitment and composition of armies. Louis did not leave a son as heir after his death in 1382. Peasant women had many domestic responsibilities, including caring for children, preparing food, and tending livestock. [6] The heart of this rediscovery lies in Italy, where, in the words of Jacob Burckhardt: "Man became a spiritual individual and recognized himself as such". Craftsmen in monasteries (and later in universities) created illuminated manuscripts: handmade sacred and secular books with colored illustrations, gold and silver lettering and other adornments. Also, in resolving political hostilities with the German emperor Frederick III of Habsburg, he invaded his western domains. Jones, p. 121; Pearl, pp. Did You Know? 2667; Chazan, pp. [102] The Schism divided Europe along political lines; while France, her ally Scotland and the Spanish kingdoms supported the Avignon Papacy, France's enemy England stood behind the Pope in Rome, together with Portugal, Scandinavia and most of the German princes. [9] Yet it was his Dutch colleague, Johan Huizinga, who was primarily responsible for popularising the pessimistic view of the Late Middle Ages, with his book The Autumn of the Middle Ages (1919). For 18th-century historians studying the 14th and 15th centuries, the central theme was the Renaissance, with its rediscovery of ancient learning and the emergence of an individual spirit. The many famines preceding the Black Death, even the 'great hunger' of 1315 to 1317, did not result in any appreciable reduction in population levels". [17], Their scarcity resulted in malnutrition, which increases susceptibility to infections due to weakened immune systems. [66], Around 13001350 the Medieval Warm Period gave way to the Little Ice Age. People use the phrase Middle Ages to describe Europe between the fall of Rome in 476 CE and the beginning of the Renaissance in the 14th century. 156; MacCulloch, p. 35. Occam was referring to his nominalism in this quotation. "Les priodes de l'histoire du capitalisme". [1][10] In his 1981 article Late Middle Age Agrarian Crisis or Crisis of Feudalism?, Peter Kriedte reprises some of the early works in the field from historians writing in the 1930s, including Marc Bloch, Henri Pirenne, Wilhelm Abel, and Michael Postan. Hollister, p. 360; Koenigsberger, p. 339. These women could find their services called upon in all kinds of circumstances. Cantor, p. 497; Hollister, p. 338; Holmes, p. 309. Allmand (1998), p. 586; Hollister, p. 339; Holmes, p. 260. This Medieval period of warming, also known as the Medieval climate anomaly, was associated with an unusual temperature rise roughly between 750 and 1350 AD (the European Middle Ages). [95] At the same time, the period also saw the emergence of the first permanent armies. King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary led the largest army of mercenaries of the time, the Black Army of Hungary, which he used to conquer Bohemia and Austria and to fight the Ottoman Empire. [21] It is hypothesized that both low temperatures and lack of nutrition lowered the cattle populations' immune systems and made them vulnerable to disease. The introduction of gunpowder to the field of battle affected not only military organisation, but helped advance the nation state. Cipolla (1976), pp. 3278; MacCulloch, p. 34. Understandably terrified about the mysterious disease, some people of the Middle Ages believed the plague was a divine punishment for sin. 40727. In 1099, Christian armies captured Jerusalem from Muslim control, and groups of pilgrims from across Western Europe started visiting the Holy Land. 3878. The people of the Middle Ages had squandered the advancements of their predecessors, this argument went, and mired themselves instead in what 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon called barbarism and religion.. The Kingdom of Hungary experienced a golden age during the 14th century. [168] From the 1330s and onwards, emerged the polyphonic style, which was a more complex fusion of independent voices. However, the division is somewhat artificial, since ancient learning was never entirely absent from European society. Gothic structures, such as the Abbey Church of Saint-Denis in France and the rebuilt Canterbury Cathedral in England, have huge stained-glass windows, pointed vaults and arches (a technology developed in the Islamic world), and spires and flying buttresses. [59] Other city states in northern Italy also expanded their territories and consolidated their power, primarily Milan, Venice and Genoa. Starting around the 14th century, European thinkers, writers and artists began to look back and celebrate the art and culture of ancient Greece and Rome. The abandonment of these plays destroyed the international theatre that had thereto existed and forced each country to develop its own form of drama. Herlihy also brings up other, biological factors that argue against the plague as a "reckoning" by arguing "the role of famines in affecting population movements is also problematic. 450-5; Jones, pp. What was the goal of a medieval . Many of these plays contained comedy, devils, villains and clowns.[173]. [149] This can be seen particularly well in his sculptures, inspired by the study of classical models. Europeans would later begin an era of world discovery. Late Middle Ages Timeline The Middle Ages encompass one of the most exciting and bloodthirsty periods in English and European History. Austin Alchon, Suzanne (2003). [19][20] Scarcity of grain caused price inflation, as described in one account of grain prices in Europe in which the price of wheat doubled from twenty shillings per quarter in 1315 to forty shillings per quarter by June of the following year. 1503; Holmes, p. 304; Koenigsberger, p. 299; McKisack, p. 160. Between the 10th and 13th centuries, most European cathedrals were built in the Romanesque style. [3], Despite the crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress in the arts and sciences. [120], To many secular rulers the Protestant reformation was a welcome opportunity to expand their wealth and influence. [84] Cities were also decimated by the Black Death, but the role of urban areas as centres of learning, commerce and government ensured continued growth. In the autumn of 1314, heavy rains began to fall, which were the start of several years of cold and wet winters. [83], Up until the mid-14th century, Europe had experienced steadily increasing urbanisation. Medieval men and women were therefore eager to ensure that weather conditions stayed favourable. [citation needed], The Medieval Warm Period ended sometime towards the end of the 13th century, bringing the "Little Ice Age"[16] and harsher winters with reduced harvests. [19] The Swedes were reluctant members of the Danish-dominated union from the start. Soon after the end of the war in 1453, the dynastic struggles of the Wars of the Roses (c. 14551485) began, involving the rival dynasties of the House of Lancaster and House of York. Allmand (1998), pp. Allmand, pp. They did make ordinary Catholics across Christendom feel like they had a common purpose, and they inspired waves of religious enthusiasm among people who might otherwise have felt alienated from the official Church. 500-1000 Era in European history often referred to as the Dark Ages, or Early Middle Ages. This commerce created a concept of Africans as almost non-human - as people and societies without substance and without pasts. In the realm of infectious diseases, a pandemic is the worst case scenario. Many scholars call the era the medieval period instead; Middle Ages, they say, incorrectly implies that the period is an insignificant blip sandwiched between two much more important epochs. [93] The practice was associated with Edward III of England and the condottieri of the Italian city-states. [150] As the centre of the movement shifted to Rome, the period culminated in the High Renaissance masters da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael. These vernacular Mystery plays were written in cycles of a large number of plays: York (48 plays), Chester (24), Wakefield (32) and Unknown (42). Just prior to the Great Famine, Europe experienced the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA), a period of global climate variation during the Middle Ages. Communicable diseases existed during humankinds hunter-gatherer days, but the shift to agrarian read more, Long before Santa Claus, caroling and light-strewn Christmas trees, people in medieval Europe celebrated the Christmas season with 12 full days of feasting and revelry culminating with Twelfth Night and the raucous crowning of a King of Misrule. Christmas in the Middle Ages read more, The Gilded Age is the term used to describe the tumultuous years between the Civil War and the turn of the twentieth century. Allmand (1998), pp. The Middle Ages, the medieval period of European history between the fall of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the Renaissance, are sometimes referred to as the "Dark Ages." Knights. Terminology and periodisation. [21] Manorial accounts of cattle populations in the year between 1319 and 1320, places a sixty-two percent loss in England and Wales alone. [112] Hus gained a great following in Bohemia, and in 1414, he was requested to appear at the Council of Constance to defend his cause. Combined with the influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. [45] However, the glory of the Kingdom ended in the early 16th century, when the King Louis II of Hungary was killed in the Battle of Mohcs in 1526 against the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, Poland's attention was turned eastwards, as the Commonwealth with Lithuania created an enormous entity in the region. [18], As Europe moved out of the Medieval Warm Period and into the Little Ice Age, a decrease in temperature and a great number of devastating floods disrupted harvests and caused mass famine. Leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodization in his History of the Florentine People (1442). [157] The vernacular had been in use in England since the 8th century and France since the 11th century, where the most popular genres had been the chanson de geste, troubadour lyrics and romantic epics, or the romance. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! [56] Northern remnants of Bulgaria were finally conquered by 1396, Serbia fell in 1459, Bosnia in 1463, and Albania was finally subordinated in 1479 only a few years after the death of Skanderbeg. From the Middle Ages until the 1870s, monetary theories shared common features only given up when the concept of money's purchasing power was decoupled from its metallic value (since this happened fairly late, during the 20th century, it won't concern us much). Allmand (1998), p. 29; Cantor, p. 514; Koenigsberger, pp. [132], Though there is no doubt that the demographic crisis of the 14th century caused a dramatic fall in production and commerce in absolute terms, there has been a vigorous historical debate over whether the decline was greater than the fall in population. This new approach liberated scientific speculation from the dogmatic restraints of Aristotelian science, and paved the way for new approaches. [80] States were also guilty of discrimination against the Jews. Einleitung: Krise des Sptmittelalters? [151], The ideas of the Italian Renaissance were slow to cross the Alps into northern Europe, but important artistic innovations were made also in the Low Countries. [104] Even though the unity of the Western Church was to last for another hundred years, and though the Papacy was to experience greater material prosperity than ever before, the Great Schism had done irreparable damage. [145], A precursor to Renaissance art can be seen already in the early 14th-century works of Giotto. All Rights Reserved. [citation needed] Some historians, particularly in Italy, prefer not to speak of the Late Middle Ages at all but rather see the high period of the Middle Ages transitioning to the Renaissance and the modern era. A series of famines and plagues, including the Great Famine of 13151317 and the Black Death, reduced the population to around half of what it had been before the calamities. 3501; Koenigsberger, p. 232; McKisack, p. 40. To add to the many problems of the period, the unity of the Catholic Church was temporarily shattered by the Western Schism. Wheat, oats, hay and consequently livestock, were all in short supply. The tribes took over the land and formed many small kingdoms. [21] Much of the medieval peasants' protein was obtained from dairy, and milk shortages likely caused nutritional deficiency in the European population. [16] The financial demands of war necessitated higher levels of taxation, resulting in the emergence of representative bodies most notably the English Parliament. Allmand (1998), p. 547; Hollister, p. 363; Holmes, p. 258. Toward the end of the 11th century, the Catholic Church began to authorize military expeditions, or Crusades, to expel Muslim infidels from the Holy Land. [2] Along with depopulation came social unrest and endemic warfare. Contamine, pp. Allmand (1998), p. 162; Hollister, p. 99; Holmes, p. 265. One exception to this was North-Eastern Europe, whose population managed to maintain low levels of violence due to a more organized society resulting from extensive and successful trade. Allmand (1998), pp. [58] Florence grew to prominence amongst the Italian city-states through financial business, and the dominant Medici family became important promoters of the Renaissance through their patronage of the arts. During the busiest times of the year, such as the harvest, women often joined their husbands in the field to bring in the crops. This situation was worsened when landowners and monarchs such as Edward III of England (r. 13271377) and Philip VI of France (r. 13281350), raised the fines and rents of their tenants out of a fear that their comparatively high standard of living would decline. [20][21], The Black Death was a particularly devastating epidemic in Europe during this time, and is notable due to the number of people who succumbed to the disease within the few years the disease was active. Yet this measure only led to further hostilities, and Sweden broke away for good in 1523. Sigismund eventually achieved total control of Hungary and established his court in Buda and Visegrd. [30], The French House of Valois, which followed the House of Capet in 1328, was at its outset marginalized in its own country, first by the English invading forces of the Hundred Years' War, and later by the powerful Duchy of Burgundy. Heribert Mller, in his 2012 book on the religious crisis of the late Middle Ages, discussed whether the term itself was in crisis: No doubt the thesis of the crisis of the late Middle Ages has itself been in crisis for some time now, and hardly anyone considered an expert in the field would still profess it without some ifs and buts, and especially so in the case of German Medieval historians. It was especially deadly in cities, where it was impossible to prevent the transmission of the disease from one person to another. 150, 155; Cantor, p. 544; Hollister, p. 326. [13], In his 2014 historiographical article about the crisis in the Middle Ages, Peter Schuster quotes the historian Lopold Genicot's 1971 article "Crisis: From the Middle Ages to Modern Times": "Crisis is the word which comes immediately to the historian's mind when he thinks of the fourteenth and the fifteenth centuries. [60] The War of the Sicilian Vespers had by the early 14th century divided southern Italy into an Aragon Kingdom of Sicily and an Anjou Kingdom of Naples. It was fatal to an estimated thirty to sixty percent of the population where the disease was present. [33] When Charles was killed in the Burgundian Wars at the Battle of Nancy in 1477, the Duchy of Burgundy was reclaimed by France. [74] Attempts by landowners to forcibly reduce wages, such as the English 1351 Statute of Laborers, were doomed to fail. The use of the national or feudal levy was gradually replaced by paid troops of domestic retinues or foreign mercenaries. 3003. Hungary was the last bastion of the Latin Christian world in the East, and fought to keep its rule over a period of two centuries. Thousands of Jews were murdered between 1348 and 1349, while others fled to less populated areas of Eastern Europe. Villeins were peasants who were legally tied to land owned by a local lord. Once the Middle Ages was identified as a distinct historical period, historians in the 15th and 16th centuries began to describe it as enduring in a sequence of stages from youthful vigour to maturity (in the 12th and 13th centuries) and then sinking into old age (in the 14th and 15th centuries). And religious scholars and mystics translated, interpreted and taught the Quran and other scriptural texts to people across the Middle East. [166], Music was an important part of both secular and spiritual culture, and in the universities it made up part of the quadrivium of the liberal arts. [26] Henry V's victory at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 briefly paved the way for a unification of the two kingdoms, but his son Henry VI soon squandered all previous gains. Around 1118, a French knight named Hugues de Payens created a military order along with eight relatives and acquaintances that became the Knights Templar, and they won the eventual support of the pope and a reputation for being fearsome fighters. During this era, America became read more, The Iron Age was a period in human history that started between 1200 B.C. [17] The growth of secular authority was further aided by the decline of the papacy with the Western Schism and the coming of the Protestant Reformation.[18]. 15065; Holmes, p. 261; McKisack, p. 234. [86] Twenty-two other cities were larger than 40,000; most of these were in Italy and the Iberian peninsula, but there were also some in France, the Empire, the Low Countries, plus London in England. Others turned on their neighbors, purging people they believed to be heretics. [14], The limits of Christian Europe were still being defined in the 14th and 15th centuries. "use strict";(function(){var insertion=document.getElementById("citation-access-date");var date=new Date().toLocaleDateString(undefined,{month:"long",day:"numeric",year:"numeric"});insertion.parentElement.replaceChild(document.createTextNode(date),insertion)})(); FACT CHECK: We strive for accuracy and fairness. [164] In England Geoffrey Chaucer helped establish Middle English as a literary language with his Canterbury Tales, which contained a wide variety of narrators and stories (including some translated from Boccaccio). [100], The French crown's increasing dominance over the Papacy culminated in the transference of the Holy See to Avignon in 1309. 356; Ozment, p. 165. [116] The immediate provocation spurring this act was Pope Leo Xs renewal of the indulgence for the building of the new St. Peter's Basilica in 1514. In Northern Europe, new technological innovations such as the heavy plough and the three-field system were not as effective in clearing new fields for harvest as they were in the Mediterranean because the north had poor, clay-like soil. 166, 232; Koenigsberger, p. 251. [1], Around 1300, centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt. Allmand (1998), p. 15; Cantor, pp. [69] Estimates of the death rate caused by this epidemic range from one third to as much as sixty percent. By the end of the medieval period, the entire Balkan peninsula was annexed by, or became vassal to, the Ottomans. [163], The new literary style spread rapidly, and in France influenced such writers as Eustache Deschamps and Guillaume de Machaut. [77] In Eastern Europe, on the other hand, landowners were able to exploit the situation to force the peasantry into even more repressive bondage. "[14], Some scholars contend that at the beginning of the 14th century, Europe had become overpopulated. In his 1798 Essay on the Principle of Population, Thomas Malthus asserted that exponential population growth will invariably exceed available resources, making mass death inevitable. When an epidemic spreads beyond a countrys borders, thats when the disease officially becomes a pandemic. Edward claimed overlordship over Scotland, leading to the Wars of Scottish Independence. Anti-Jewish pogroms were carried out all over Europe; in February 1349, 2,000 Jews were murdered in Strasbourg. [35], Bohemia prospered in the 14th century, and the Golden Bull of 1356 made the king of Bohemia first among the imperial electors, but the Hussite revolution threw the country into crisis. (Examples of Romanesque architecture include the Porto Cathedral in Portugal and the Speyer Cathedral in present-day Germany.). King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary (14581490) was one of the most prominent figures of the period, directing campaigns to the West, conquering Bohemia in answer to the Pope's call for help against the Hussite Protestants. Some of medieval literatures most famous stories include The Song of Roland and The Song of Hildebrand.. Instead, he named as his heir the young prince Sigismund of Luxemburg. Allmand (1998), p. 353; Hollister, p. 344; Koenigsberger, p. 3323. [138] The Condemnation of 1277, enacted at the University of Paris, placed restrictions on ideas that could be interpreted as heretical; restrictions that had implication for Aristotelian thought. [161] The application of the vernacular did not entail a rejection of Latin, and both Dante and Boccaccio wrote prolifically in Latin as well as Italian, as would Petrarch later (whose Canzoniere also promoted the vernacular and whose contents are considered the first modern lyric poems). Hollister, p. 339; Holmes, p. 260; Koenigsberger, pp. Koenigsberger, p. 322; Jones, p. 793; Martin, pp. Many of these had fallen victim to the 13th-century Albigensian Crusade, but their influence reached the papal court at Avignon.[170]. [61] In 1442, the two kingdoms were effectively united under Aragonese control. The intellectual transformation of the Renaissance is viewed as a bridge between the Middle Ages and the Modern era. https://www.history.com/topics/middle-ages/middle-ages. In the 12th century, urban booksellers began to market smaller illuminated manuscripts, like books of hours, psalters and other prayer books, to wealthy individuals. The plague killed cows, pigs, goats, chickens and even sheep, leading to a wool shortage in Europe. This battle became a real Crusade against the Muslims, as the peasants were motivated by the Franciscan friar Saint John of Capistrano, who came from Italy predicating Holy War. 7714; Mango, p. 248. [1] Three major crises led to radical changes in all areas of society: demographic collapse, political instability, and religious upheavals. 2007. [135], In the 14th century, the predominant academic trend of scholasticism was challenged by the humanist movement. However, todays scholars note that the era was as complex and vibrant as any other. [citation needed], The unity of the Roman Catholic Church was shattered by the Western Schism. Two factors lay at the origin of the conflict: first, the status of the duchy of Guyenne (or Aquitaine)-though it belonged to the kings of England, it remained a fief of the French crown, and the. [81], While the Jews were suffering persecution, one group that probably experienced increased empowerment in the Late Middle Ages was women.
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